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fandomhigh2023-10-11 01:41 pm
atreideslioness) wrote in fandomhigh2023-10-11 01:41 pm
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The History of Assassination. Wednesday, First Period [10/11]
"Now that you know some of the how, the why, and the who, it's time to start talking about some of history's most notable assassinations," Ghanima said cheerfully to start off the class. "Today, we're going to tackle one of the earliest assassinations that is still part of the public unconscious thanks to the power of theatre -- Gaius Julius Ceasar."
"If you're from Earth, you've probably heard at least one 'Beware the Ides of March' or 'Et ut, Brute?' joke, referenced 'veni, vidi, vici,' or seen that ''stabbing a ceasar salad' meme," she continued, Trevor blissfully asleep on her back as she paced. "We can thank Ceasar himself for that. During his lifetime, Caesar was regarded as one of the best orators and prose authors in Latin – even Cicero spoke highly of Caesar's rhetoric and style. He was also a prolific author; funeral orations, poems, Alexander Hamilton-style diss letters, and more lost to time. There are two known The Commentarii de Bello Gallico, usually known in English as The Gallic Wars, seven books each covering one year of his campaigns in Gaul and southern Britain in the 50s BCE, with the eighth book written by Aulus Hirtius on the last two years of the campaign, and the Commentarii de Bello Civili, events of the Civil War from Caesar's perspective, until immediately after Pompey's death in Egypt.
"Three other works historically have been attributed to Caesar, but their authorship is in doubt: De Bello Alexandrino, De Bello Africo, and De Bello Hispaniensi. These narratives were written and published annually during or just after the actual campaigns, as a sort of "dispatches from the front". They were important in shaping Caesar's public image and enhancing his reputation when he was away from Rome for long periods. They may even have been presented as public readings, and entertainment for the masses. These, in turn, inspired yet more literary portrayals -- Caesar is referred to in some of the poems of Catullus, and he is depicted in Virgil's Aeneid, an epic poem about the foundation of Rome. Caesar appears in Canto IV of Dante Alighieri's epic poem, the Divine Comedy. He is in the section of Limbo reserved for virtuous non-Christians, along with Aeneas, Homer, Ovid, Horace and Lucan. His assassins, Brutus and Cassius, and his lover, Cleopatra, are seen among the souls of the wicked in the lower regions of hell. Even into the Medieval Era, Caesar's Civil War and assassination are recounted in Geoffrey Chaucer's "Monk's Tale," one of his Canterbury Tales."
"Visual art refused to be left out...there are dozens of portraits and statues of him, and of his assassination. In fact, the original Pantheon built by Marcus Agrippa contained a statue of Caesar alongside statues of Augustus Caesar and Agrippa. The statue was potentially destroyed when the Pantheon burned down in 80 CE."
"Then we hit the Renaissance, and William Shakespeare's Julius Ceasar, which some of you may have studied in school, serves to cement his place in the common public imagination just when culture was at a turning point that he may have finally faded from view. Even to this day, Caesar remains a popular topic or character for television, movies, and video games."
"So. Who was this man? Why do we still care?"
"Gaius Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, and subsequently became dictator from 49 BCE until his assassination in 44 BCE. He played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire."
"In 60 BCE, Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey formed the First Triumvirate, an informal political alliance that dominated Roman politics for several years. Their attempts to amass political power were opposed by many in the Senate, among them Cato the Younger with the private support of Cicero," she said, walking up to one of the many wipe-boards to start writing furiously, diagraming out all the people and connections. "Caesar rose to become one of the most powerful politicians in the Roman Republic through a string of military victories in the Gallic Wars, completed by 51 BCE, which greatly extended Roman territory. During this time he both invaded Britain and built a bridge across the river Rhine. With the Gallic Wars concluded, the Senate ordered Caesar to step down from his military command and return to Rome. In 49 BCE, Caesar openly defied the Senate's authority by crossing the Rubicon and marching towards Rome at the head of an army. This began Caesar's civil war, which he won, leaving him in a position of near-unchallenged power and influence in 45 BCE."
"After assuming control of government, Caesar began a program of social and governmental reform, including the creation of the Julian calendar. He gave citizenship to many residents of far regions of the Roman Republic. He initiated land reforms to support his veterans and initiated an enormous building program. In early 44 he was proclaimed dictator perpetuo -- or 'dictator for life.'" Ghanima smiled wryly. "Let's just say, that's not super-popular in a Senate with other officials."
"Julius Caesar was assassinated by a group of senators on the Ides of March -- March 15th -- of 44 BCE during a meeting of the Senate at the Curia of Pompey of the Theatre of Pompey in Rome where the senators stabbed Caesar 23 times. They claimed to be acting over fears that Caesar's unprecedented concentration of power during his dictatorship was undermining the Roman Republic. At least 60 to 70 senators were party to the conspiracy, led by Marcus Junius Brutus, Gaius Cassius Longinus, and Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus," Ghanima continued, moving to another section of the board to start writing down the names. "Despite the death of Caesar, the conspirators were unable to restore the institutions of the Republic. The ramifications of the assassination led to his martyrdom, the Liberators' civil war and ultimately to the Principate period of the Roman Empire."
"Now, this was not some lone political dissident! The conspiracy to assassinate Julius Caesar began with a meeting between Cassius Longinus and his brother-in-law Marcus Brutus on the evening of 22 February 44 BCE, when after some discussion the two agreed that something had to be done to prevent Caesar from becoming king of the Romans. Romans, very famously, were rather anti-king." Ghanima shrugged. "Are you unsure how 'king' is different from 'dictator perpetuo'? You are not alone in that."
"The two men then began to recruit others. While it took only one man to murder another, Brutus believed that for the assassination of Caesar to be considered a legitimate removal of a tyrant, done for the sake of their country, it must include a large number of Rome's leading men. They attempted to strike a balance: they aimed to recruit enough men to surround Caesar and fight his supporters, but not so many that they would risk being discovered. They preferred friends to acquaintances and recruited 'neither reckless youths nor feeble elders.' In the end, the conspirators recruited senators near the age of forty, as were they, and around sixty to eighty conspirators joined the plot, although exact numbers are unknown."
"According to Nicolaus of Damascus, the conspirators included Caesar's soldiers, officers, and civilian associates, and while some joined the conspiracy due to concerns over Caesar's authoritarianism, many had self-interested motives such as jealousy: feeling that Caesar had not rewarded them enough or that he had given too much money towards Pompey's former supporters. The conspirators did not meet openly but instead secretly assembled at each other's homes and in small groups in order to work out a plan."
"Eventually the conspirators split into two factions. The optimates, the "Best Men" of Rome, among the conspirators wanted to go back to the way things were before Caesar. This would entail killing both Caesar and all the men around him, including Mark Antony, and reverting Caesar's reforms. The former supporters of Caesar among the conspirators did not agree to this. They liked Caesar's reforms, and did not want a purge of Caesar's supporters. However, even they agreed to kill Antony."
"But Brutus disagreed with both. He argued that killing Caesar, and doing nothing else, was the option they should choose. The conspirators claimed to be acting based on the principles of law and justice, he told them, and it would be unjust to kill Antony. While the assassination of Caesar would be viewed as the killing of a tyrant, killing his supporters would be seen only as a politicized purge and the work of Pompey's former supporters. By keeping Caesar's reforms intact, they would both keep the support of the Roman people, who Brutus believed opposed Caesar the king, not Caesar the reformer, and the support of Caesar's soldiers and other supporters. His argument convinced the other conspirators. They began making plans for Caesar's assassination."
"The conspirators believed that how and where they assassinated Caesar would make a difference. An ambush in a secluded area would have a different impact on public opinion than an assassination in the heart of Rome. The conspirators came up with multiple ideas for the assassination. They considered an attack on Caesar while he was walking on the Via Sacra, the "Sacred Street". Another idea was to wait to attack him during the elections for new consuls. The conspirators would wait for Caesar to begin crossing the bridge that all voters crossed as part of the election procedures, and then topple him over the rail and into the water. There would be conspirators waiting in the water for Caesar, with daggers drawn. Another plan was to attack at a gladiatorial game, which had the benefit that nobody would be suspicious of armed men."
"Finally, somebody brought up the idea to assassinate Caesar at one of the senate meetings. All other plans had one detriment: while Caesar had no official bodyguards, he asked his friends to protect him in public and the conspirators were afraid that they would interfere with the assassination. Here, this would not be an issue, since only senators were allowed in the Senate House. Some also said that the murder of a tyrant in full view of the Senate would not be seen as a political plot, but as a noble act, done on behalf of their country. The conspirators ultimately settled on this as the chosen plan. Caesar would be leaving the city on 18 March to embark on a military campaign against the Getae and the Parthians. The last senate meeting before that date was on the 15th, the Ides of March, and so the conspirators chose this as the day of the assassination."
"It is said that in the days leading up to the Ides, Caesar was not completely oblivious to what was being planned. According to the ancient historian Plutarch, a seer had warned Caesar that his life would be in danger no later than the Ides of March. In addition, on March 1st, Caesar watched Cassius speaking with Brutus at the senate house and said to an aide, 'What do you think Cassius is up to? I don't like him, he looks pale.'"
"On the Ides of March of 44 BC, conspirators and non-conspirators met at the Senate House of Pompey, located in the Theatre of Pompey, for the senate meeting. Usually, the senators would be meeting at the Roman Forum, but Caesar was financing a reconstruction of the forum and so the senators met in other venues throughout Rome, this being one of them." Ghanima put down her marker, and began circling the classroom again, hands animatedly gesturing as she talked. "He almost didn't make it that day. His wife, Calpurnia, had a nightmare of Caesar's death, most likely an actual prophetic dream, at least in my reality. He had to be talked into attending. And allegedly, on the way, we ran-into the seer that had warned him earlier about the day.
"Or, as the histories say, the exchange went thus: 'Well, the Ides of March have come!' Caesar called out, taunting the seer. To which the person replied, "Aye, the Ides have come, but they are not yet gone."
"According to Plutarch, as Caesar took his seat, Lucius Tillius Cimber presented him with a petition. The other conspirators crowded round to offer their support. Both Plutarch and Suetonius say that Caesar waved him away, but Cimber grabbed Caesar's shoulders and pulled down Caesar's toga. Caesar then cried to Cimber, 'Ista quidem vis est!' or, 'what is this violence?' At the same time, Casca produced his dagger and made a glancing thrust at the dictator's neck. Caesar turned around quickly and caught Casca by the arm." Ghanima made a face. "It got messy from there."
"Though Caesar was able to violently throw Casca away, Gaius Servilius Casca stabbed him in the side. Within moments, Caesar was attacked from all directions, with Cassius, slashing Caesar's face, Bucilianus stabbing at the back and Decimus slicing his thigh. Caesar attempted to fight back, but tripped and fell; the men continued stabbing him as he lay defenseless on the lower steps of the portico." Ghanima ceased her pacing, stopping in the front of the room and folding her arms. "Caesar was stabbed twenty-three times. Suetonius relates that a physician who performed an autopsy on Caesar established that only one wound -- the second one to his ribs -- had been fatal. This autopsy report, which is the earliest known post-mortem report in history, describes that Caesar's death was mostly attributable to blood loss from his stab wounds."
"Caesar was killed at the base of the Curia of Pompey in the Theatre of Pompey. His last words are a contested subject among scholars and historians. Suetonius himself says he said nothing, nevertheless, he mentions that others have written that Caesar's last words were the Greek phrase 'καὶ σύ, τέκνον;' or "You too, child?' in English. Plutarch also reports that Caesar said nothing, pulling his toga over his head when he saw Brutus among the conspirators.
"Brutus and his companions then marched through the city, announcing, "People of Rome, we are once again free!" They were met with silence, as the citizens of Rome had locked themselves inside their houses as soon as the rumours of what had taken place began to spread. According to Suetonius, after the murder all the conspirators fled; Caesar's body lay untouched for some time afterwards, until finally three slaves put him on a litter and carried him home, with one arm hanging down."
"Naturally, this did not solve any problems. A new series of civil wars broke out and the constitutional government of the Republic was never fully restored. Caesar's great-nephew and adopted heir Octavian, later known as Augustus, rose to sole power after defeating his opponents in the last civil war of the Roman Republic. Octavian set about solidifying his power, and the era of the Roman Empire began."
"In one final, ironic, act of posthumous revenge, Gaius Julius Ceaser's cognomen -- that third name that Romans used -- was subsequently adopted as a synonym for 'emperor'; the title 'Caesar' was used throughout the Roman Empire, giving rise to modern descendants such as Kaiser and Tsar."
"Today, Julius Caesar is the basis of what is called 'Caesarism,' a form of political rule led by a charismatic strongman whose rule is based upon a cult of personality, whose rationale is the need to rule by force, establishing a violent social order, and being a regime involving prominence of the military in the government." Was she rather deadpan with that description? Yes, well, American Politics. "Other people in history, such as the French Napoleon Bonaparte and the Italian Benito Mussolini, have defined themselves as Caesarists. Notably, Bonaparte did not focus only on Caesar's military career but also on his relation with the masses, a predecessor to populism."
"If you're from Earth, you've probably heard at least one 'Beware the Ides of March' or 'Et ut, Brute?' joke, referenced 'veni, vidi, vici,' or seen that ''stabbing a ceasar salad' meme," she continued, Trevor blissfully asleep on her back as she paced. "We can thank Ceasar himself for that. During his lifetime, Caesar was regarded as one of the best orators and prose authors in Latin – even Cicero spoke highly of Caesar's rhetoric and style. He was also a prolific author; funeral orations, poems, Alexander Hamilton-style diss letters, and more lost to time. There are two known The Commentarii de Bello Gallico, usually known in English as The Gallic Wars, seven books each covering one year of his campaigns in Gaul and southern Britain in the 50s BCE, with the eighth book written by Aulus Hirtius on the last two years of the campaign, and the Commentarii de Bello Civili, events of the Civil War from Caesar's perspective, until immediately after Pompey's death in Egypt.
"Three other works historically have been attributed to Caesar, but their authorship is in doubt: De Bello Alexandrino, De Bello Africo, and De Bello Hispaniensi. These narratives were written and published annually during or just after the actual campaigns, as a sort of "dispatches from the front". They were important in shaping Caesar's public image and enhancing his reputation when he was away from Rome for long periods. They may even have been presented as public readings, and entertainment for the masses. These, in turn, inspired yet more literary portrayals -- Caesar is referred to in some of the poems of Catullus, and he is depicted in Virgil's Aeneid, an epic poem about the foundation of Rome. Caesar appears in Canto IV of Dante Alighieri's epic poem, the Divine Comedy. He is in the section of Limbo reserved for virtuous non-Christians, along with Aeneas, Homer, Ovid, Horace and Lucan. His assassins, Brutus and Cassius, and his lover, Cleopatra, are seen among the souls of the wicked in the lower regions of hell. Even into the Medieval Era, Caesar's Civil War and assassination are recounted in Geoffrey Chaucer's "Monk's Tale," one of his Canterbury Tales."
"Visual art refused to be left out...there are dozens of portraits and statues of him, and of his assassination. In fact, the original Pantheon built by Marcus Agrippa contained a statue of Caesar alongside statues of Augustus Caesar and Agrippa. The statue was potentially destroyed when the Pantheon burned down in 80 CE."
"Then we hit the Renaissance, and William Shakespeare's Julius Ceasar, which some of you may have studied in school, serves to cement his place in the common public imagination just when culture was at a turning point that he may have finally faded from view. Even to this day, Caesar remains a popular topic or character for television, movies, and video games."
"So. Who was this man? Why do we still care?"
"Gaius Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, and subsequently became dictator from 49 BCE until his assassination in 44 BCE. He played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire."
"In 60 BCE, Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey formed the First Triumvirate, an informal political alliance that dominated Roman politics for several years. Their attempts to amass political power were opposed by many in the Senate, among them Cato the Younger with the private support of Cicero," she said, walking up to one of the many wipe-boards to start writing furiously, diagraming out all the people and connections. "Caesar rose to become one of the most powerful politicians in the Roman Republic through a string of military victories in the Gallic Wars, completed by 51 BCE, which greatly extended Roman territory. During this time he both invaded Britain and built a bridge across the river Rhine. With the Gallic Wars concluded, the Senate ordered Caesar to step down from his military command and return to Rome. In 49 BCE, Caesar openly defied the Senate's authority by crossing the Rubicon and marching towards Rome at the head of an army. This began Caesar's civil war, which he won, leaving him in a position of near-unchallenged power and influence in 45 BCE."
"After assuming control of government, Caesar began a program of social and governmental reform, including the creation of the Julian calendar. He gave citizenship to many residents of far regions of the Roman Republic. He initiated land reforms to support his veterans and initiated an enormous building program. In early 44 he was proclaimed dictator perpetuo -- or 'dictator for life.'" Ghanima smiled wryly. "Let's just say, that's not super-popular in a Senate with other officials."
"Julius Caesar was assassinated by a group of senators on the Ides of March -- March 15th -- of 44 BCE during a meeting of the Senate at the Curia of Pompey of the Theatre of Pompey in Rome where the senators stabbed Caesar 23 times. They claimed to be acting over fears that Caesar's unprecedented concentration of power during his dictatorship was undermining the Roman Republic. At least 60 to 70 senators were party to the conspiracy, led by Marcus Junius Brutus, Gaius Cassius Longinus, and Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus," Ghanima continued, moving to another section of the board to start writing down the names. "Despite the death of Caesar, the conspirators were unable to restore the institutions of the Republic. The ramifications of the assassination led to his martyrdom, the Liberators' civil war and ultimately to the Principate period of the Roman Empire."
"Now, this was not some lone political dissident! The conspiracy to assassinate Julius Caesar began with a meeting between Cassius Longinus and his brother-in-law Marcus Brutus on the evening of 22 February 44 BCE, when after some discussion the two agreed that something had to be done to prevent Caesar from becoming king of the Romans. Romans, very famously, were rather anti-king." Ghanima shrugged. "Are you unsure how 'king' is different from 'dictator perpetuo'? You are not alone in that."
"The two men then began to recruit others. While it took only one man to murder another, Brutus believed that for the assassination of Caesar to be considered a legitimate removal of a tyrant, done for the sake of their country, it must include a large number of Rome's leading men. They attempted to strike a balance: they aimed to recruit enough men to surround Caesar and fight his supporters, but not so many that they would risk being discovered. They preferred friends to acquaintances and recruited 'neither reckless youths nor feeble elders.' In the end, the conspirators recruited senators near the age of forty, as were they, and around sixty to eighty conspirators joined the plot, although exact numbers are unknown."
"According to Nicolaus of Damascus, the conspirators included Caesar's soldiers, officers, and civilian associates, and while some joined the conspiracy due to concerns over Caesar's authoritarianism, many had self-interested motives such as jealousy: feeling that Caesar had not rewarded them enough or that he had given too much money towards Pompey's former supporters. The conspirators did not meet openly but instead secretly assembled at each other's homes and in small groups in order to work out a plan."
"Eventually the conspirators split into two factions. The optimates, the "Best Men" of Rome, among the conspirators wanted to go back to the way things were before Caesar. This would entail killing both Caesar and all the men around him, including Mark Antony, and reverting Caesar's reforms. The former supporters of Caesar among the conspirators did not agree to this. They liked Caesar's reforms, and did not want a purge of Caesar's supporters. However, even they agreed to kill Antony."
"But Brutus disagreed with both. He argued that killing Caesar, and doing nothing else, was the option they should choose. The conspirators claimed to be acting based on the principles of law and justice, he told them, and it would be unjust to kill Antony. While the assassination of Caesar would be viewed as the killing of a tyrant, killing his supporters would be seen only as a politicized purge and the work of Pompey's former supporters. By keeping Caesar's reforms intact, they would both keep the support of the Roman people, who Brutus believed opposed Caesar the king, not Caesar the reformer, and the support of Caesar's soldiers and other supporters. His argument convinced the other conspirators. They began making plans for Caesar's assassination."
"The conspirators believed that how and where they assassinated Caesar would make a difference. An ambush in a secluded area would have a different impact on public opinion than an assassination in the heart of Rome. The conspirators came up with multiple ideas for the assassination. They considered an attack on Caesar while he was walking on the Via Sacra, the "Sacred Street". Another idea was to wait to attack him during the elections for new consuls. The conspirators would wait for Caesar to begin crossing the bridge that all voters crossed as part of the election procedures, and then topple him over the rail and into the water. There would be conspirators waiting in the water for Caesar, with daggers drawn. Another plan was to attack at a gladiatorial game, which had the benefit that nobody would be suspicious of armed men."
"Finally, somebody brought up the idea to assassinate Caesar at one of the senate meetings. All other plans had one detriment: while Caesar had no official bodyguards, he asked his friends to protect him in public and the conspirators were afraid that they would interfere with the assassination. Here, this would not be an issue, since only senators were allowed in the Senate House. Some also said that the murder of a tyrant in full view of the Senate would not be seen as a political plot, but as a noble act, done on behalf of their country. The conspirators ultimately settled on this as the chosen plan. Caesar would be leaving the city on 18 March to embark on a military campaign against the Getae and the Parthians. The last senate meeting before that date was on the 15th, the Ides of March, and so the conspirators chose this as the day of the assassination."
"It is said that in the days leading up to the Ides, Caesar was not completely oblivious to what was being planned. According to the ancient historian Plutarch, a seer had warned Caesar that his life would be in danger no later than the Ides of March. In addition, on March 1st, Caesar watched Cassius speaking with Brutus at the senate house and said to an aide, 'What do you think Cassius is up to? I don't like him, he looks pale.'"
"On the Ides of March of 44 BC, conspirators and non-conspirators met at the Senate House of Pompey, located in the Theatre of Pompey, for the senate meeting. Usually, the senators would be meeting at the Roman Forum, but Caesar was financing a reconstruction of the forum and so the senators met in other venues throughout Rome, this being one of them." Ghanima put down her marker, and began circling the classroom again, hands animatedly gesturing as she talked. "He almost didn't make it that day. His wife, Calpurnia, had a nightmare of Caesar's death, most likely an actual prophetic dream, at least in my reality. He had to be talked into attending. And allegedly, on the way, we ran-into the seer that had warned him earlier about the day.
"Or, as the histories say, the exchange went thus: 'Well, the Ides of March have come!' Caesar called out, taunting the seer. To which the person replied, "Aye, the Ides have come, but they are not yet gone."
"According to Plutarch, as Caesar took his seat, Lucius Tillius Cimber presented him with a petition. The other conspirators crowded round to offer their support. Both Plutarch and Suetonius say that Caesar waved him away, but Cimber grabbed Caesar's shoulders and pulled down Caesar's toga. Caesar then cried to Cimber, 'Ista quidem vis est!' or, 'what is this violence?' At the same time, Casca produced his dagger and made a glancing thrust at the dictator's neck. Caesar turned around quickly and caught Casca by the arm." Ghanima made a face. "It got messy from there."
"Though Caesar was able to violently throw Casca away, Gaius Servilius Casca stabbed him in the side. Within moments, Caesar was attacked from all directions, with Cassius, slashing Caesar's face, Bucilianus stabbing at the back and Decimus slicing his thigh. Caesar attempted to fight back, but tripped and fell; the men continued stabbing him as he lay defenseless on the lower steps of the portico." Ghanima ceased her pacing, stopping in the front of the room and folding her arms. "Caesar was stabbed twenty-three times. Suetonius relates that a physician who performed an autopsy on Caesar established that only one wound -- the second one to his ribs -- had been fatal. This autopsy report, which is the earliest known post-mortem report in history, describes that Caesar's death was mostly attributable to blood loss from his stab wounds."
"Caesar was killed at the base of the Curia of Pompey in the Theatre of Pompey. His last words are a contested subject among scholars and historians. Suetonius himself says he said nothing, nevertheless, he mentions that others have written that Caesar's last words were the Greek phrase 'καὶ σύ, τέκνον;' or "You too, child?' in English. Plutarch also reports that Caesar said nothing, pulling his toga over his head when he saw Brutus among the conspirators.
"Brutus and his companions then marched through the city, announcing, "People of Rome, we are once again free!" They were met with silence, as the citizens of Rome had locked themselves inside their houses as soon as the rumours of what had taken place began to spread. According to Suetonius, after the murder all the conspirators fled; Caesar's body lay untouched for some time afterwards, until finally three slaves put him on a litter and carried him home, with one arm hanging down."
"Naturally, this did not solve any problems. A new series of civil wars broke out and the constitutional government of the Republic was never fully restored. Caesar's great-nephew and adopted heir Octavian, later known as Augustus, rose to sole power after defeating his opponents in the last civil war of the Roman Republic. Octavian set about solidifying his power, and the era of the Roman Empire began."
"In one final, ironic, act of posthumous revenge, Gaius Julius Ceaser's cognomen -- that third name that Romans used -- was subsequently adopted as a synonym for 'emperor'; the title 'Caesar' was used throughout the Roman Empire, giving rise to modern descendants such as Kaiser and Tsar."
"Today, Julius Caesar is the basis of what is called 'Caesarism,' a form of political rule led by a charismatic strongman whose rule is based upon a cult of personality, whose rationale is the need to rule by force, establishing a violent social order, and being a regime involving prominence of the military in the government." Was she rather deadpan with that description? Yes, well, American Politics. "Other people in history, such as the French Napoleon Bonaparte and the Italian Benito Mussolini, have defined themselves as Caesarists. Notably, Bonaparte did not focus only on Caesar's military career but also on his relation with the masses, a predecessor to populism."
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